Nuclear Weapons Testing Johnston Atoll 1958 - 1962

Johnston Atoll is located in the Pacific Ocean situated approximately thirteen hundred kilometers South-West of Honolulu Hawaii and was used by the US to conduct 12 nuclear tests between 1958 and 1962 (Mitchell J,2020). The two main nuclear operation series conducted on Johnston Atoll were Operation Hardtack and Operation Dominic. Both operation series contributed to the US research and development of nuclear weapons and defense strategies during the cold war era.

Testing resulted in great successes for the US Military. However, it also consisted of catastrophic failures affecting personnels and the environment on and around Johnston Atoll which effects are still inexistence today.

During its nuclear testing era between 1958 and 1964 Johnston Atoll was significantly increased in size by the US military. In 1958 in preparation for operation Hardtack the size of the island was expanded using coral dredging. Launch facilities were then established on the new ground. The island was then dredged again between 1962 and 1964 as part of a radiological clean up following 3 failed test shots during Operation Fishbowl which was part of Operation Dominic (The History Guy, 2023). By 1964 following all the dredging and filling Johnston atoll had increased from its original size of 46 acres in 1958 to 596 acres (FWS.gov , n.d.).

1958 Operation Hardtack - From April 28 ^th  to October 31st, 1958, the United States conducted a series of atmospheric nuclear tests in the Pacific Ocean and Nevada. The testing was given the code name of Operation Hardtack.  Hardtack was primarily aimed at measuring the effects of high-yield nuclear weapons on structures and materials, military equipment, military personnel and the gathering of data on the physical and environmental effects caused from nuclear explosions and radiation.

Operation Hardtack1 - was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted from 28 ^th  April to 18 August 1958 as part of Operation Hardtack. The operation was a collaboration of 19,100 personnel made up of civilians and military organizations thus being Joint Task Force 7, the department of Defense and the Atomic Energy Commission (DNA 6038F , n.d).

All tests apart from two were detonated at Enewetak and Bikini atoll in the Marsh Islands. The remaining two were detonated at Johnston Atoll. These two tests of the Hardtack1 series were code named Teak and Orange.

Teak and Orange were high altitude nuclear weapons tests and were the two largest and highest altitude nuclear explosions of the series after Yucca. Their test objectives were to study blast, thermal and nuclear radiation affects at high altitudes. However, scientists were worried about the testing as they feared that the blast might rip holes in the ozone layer, but regardless the decision was made by the military to continue with testing (Mitchell J,2020).

Teak Shot - Teak was launched on the 31 ^st  July 1958 at 11.50pm Johnston time and was planned to detonate at 250,000 feet approximately 6 miles south of Johnston Island. However due to a program failure it exploded directly over the island. Following the detonation, a huge flash occurred which was described as turning night into day followed by a fireball with a visibility reaching more than 18 miles in three and a half seconds and rising at a rate of one mile per second. From the bottom of the fireball a spectacular aurora was present with vivid colours (DTRA ,2002).

The blast was so big it could be observed throughout the Pacific. It was even observed as far away as the Apia Observatory in Western Samoa approximately 2,000 miles to the South (DTRA, 2002).

An observer, an Air Force lieutenant watching from his porch described the blast as:

“…it seemed to be a semicircular fireball on the horizon…I just thought it was Honolulu or Pearl Harbor and I was dead.” (DTRA History Series,2002)

Communications were cut to New Zealand for around six hours and for 2 hours in Honolulu Hawaii following the Teak shot. This was due to persistent ionization of the low-density atmosphere which cut trans -Pacific high frequency radio communications. Fortunately, in Honolulu telephone communication was still possible. However, this resulted in over 1,000 extra calls to Honolulu Police service that night as shocked residents asked for information on what they had seen as Honolulu residents were not informed about any testing scheduled to take place (DTRA, 2002). Originally, Teak was planned to take place at Bikini atoll but due to its 3.8 megatons yield it was moved to the more remote location of Johnston Atoll out of safety fears for the atoll islanders. There was fear that the nighttime flash would damage the nearby islander’s eyesight resulting in blindness and / or retinal burns (DTRA, 2002).

As part of the hardtack testing, a study was carried out by scientists to test the effect of thermal pulse on eyesight. It was decided that rabbits would be used instead of humans for testing. The rabbits were kept in holding frames which constrained the rabbits to make sure that their eyes would be exposed directly to the thermal pulse. During the shot it was agreed that five scientists and doctors would reside in an underground dispensary on the island and that when safe to do so following the shot the scientists would emerge and examine the rabbit’s eyes. Examinations after the test shots confirmed that all the rabbits suffered chorioretinal burns resulting in permanent damage. Also, a plane carrying rabbits that were 200 miles from the explosion also suffered chorioretinal burns (Bud's Memories of Operation Hardtack, 2012) .

Robert (Bud) Vance a military personnel present on Johnston Atoll during operation Hardtack recalls a conversation between Scientist Dr Hobbs with Petty Officer Jones on the 17 ^th  July 1958 in his memoir:

" Dr. Hobbs. My scientific experiment is to determine if the thermal pulse of the TEAK Shot could cause chorioretinal burns and permanent damage to the eye of a human who is on Johnston Island and who is looking at the fireball. If a person is not looking directly at the fire ball, then such person may suffer from flash blindness, which is a temporary condition which may last from a few minutes to several days. However, during the test, we are going to use rabbits instead of humans. My people have built the rabbit holding frames from the materials which were provided by Homes and Narver and these frames will constrain the rabbits to make sure that their eyes will be exposed directly to the thermal pulse. I have been authorized to stay on the Island during the shot because I will have to examine the rabbits eyes as soon as possible after the shot." (Bud's Memories of Operation Hardtack, 2012)

Orange Shot - 12 days after the Teak shot on the 11 ^th  August the Orange shot commenced. Orange as like Teak was a high-altitude rocket with a 3.8 megatons yield. The rocket was launched at 11.27pm Johnston time. At 125,000 feet the fire signal was sent to the rocket however there was no response due to a failure of a safety switch once it had cleared the safety zone. The error was quickly addressed and corrected however the missile reached 141,000 feet before detonating (DTRA ,2002).

This time before the launch of Orange, the residents of Hawaii were informed that testing would take place. Being told that another test was planned to take place caused a lot of anxiety for many within the communities of Hawaii. However, there were others who looked forward to observing the shot. Some accounts from observers on the island described the blast as disappointing compared to teak with one person who observed the shot from the top of mount Haleakala on Maui describing the display as:

“…a dark brownish red mushroom that rose in the sky and then died down and turned to white with a dark red rainbow." (DTRA History Series, 2002)

Unlike Teak, Orange had little effect on radio communications.

Success of Operation Hardtack1 Teak and Orange

Opinion on whether Teak and Orange were a success is mixed. Whilst valuable information had been gathered on its main objectives, the study of the effect of thermal and radiation effects at high altitudes was limited. Many scientists consider the test only to be partially successful as neither detonation had gone to plan at the right location.

Operation Dominic

 In 1962 four years later and in the height of the Cold War, Operation Dominic series took place between July and November with test shots being in rapid succession. The reason for the speed of the testing was to beat a ban on atmospheric testing planned to commence the following year and as a response to USSR 1961 atmospheric testing which saw the detonation of the largest atomic device ever seen at 63 megatons the “Tsar Bombar” (Boyne, W, 2012)

Operation Dominic was a follow on from Operation Hardtack using data obtained from it and with a goal to answer questions which had been left un-answered. The main objectives set by Joint Task Force 8 for Operation Dominic were:

·        To provide thorough testing of existing and new thermonuclear weapon design.

·        Determining whether airborne diagnostic analysis was sufficiently accurate to replace the land-based systems.

·        Checking effects of nuclear weapons on electromagnetic pulse phenomena.

·        Exploring the effects of a detonation environment on incoming ballistic missile warheads. (Boyne, W, 2012)

As part of Operation Dominic Johnston Atoll was the center of launch and experimental activity for the 1962 high altitude weapons effects testing code named Operation Fishbowl.

Operation Fishbowl

Operation Fishbowl had a large impact on the future of Johnston Atoll with 3 launch failures in particular resulting in a significant amount of radiological contamination to the island.

Starfish Shot - On June 19 ^th  1962, during the Starfish tests, a Thor rocket engine cut out one minute to launch. As it was feared that the rocket would veer off course it was decided by the safety office to destroy it before it had the chance to do so. The action resulted in at least 250 chunks of plutonium-contaminated debris falling on Johnston Atoll ( Mitchell J , 2020).

Bluegill Prime - On the July 25 ^th , 5 weeks later another Thor rocket malfunctioned during the Bluegill Prime test. The malfunction prompted safety officers to destroy the rocket as like with Starfish to prevent it from detonating. The missile exploded and caused extensive alpha contamination to Johnston Atoll. The next day following the explosion testing confirmed that radioactive contamination was as high as 1 million counts per minute compared to normal background levels of around 50 counts per minute. In an attempt to clean up the area, civilian contractors tried dousing sand with oil, dumping soil and equipment into the sea and scrubbing concrete with solvents. The decontamination attempt was inadequate, and the site remained highly contaminated with radiations levels still exceeding one hundred counts per minute (Mitchell J,2020).

Bluegill Double Prime -The third failure Bluegill Double Prime happened on October 15 ^th  of the same year. Again, the rocket malfunctioned approximately 95 seconds into launch forcing safety officers to destroy it and again Johnston Atoll was doused in radioactive fallout and an inadequate clean up followed (sonicbomb.com,2023).

Johnston Atoll`s nuclear legacy

Despite Operation Hardtack and Dominic overall being assessed as a great success for the US military. Providing valuable improved data for nuclear weapon technology and safety, the effects of failures was catastrophic for the Johnston Atoll environment and for those involved in the operation and clean up of the Island and its surrounding areas.

In later years a study reported that personnel present on the island at the time of the accidents subsequently suffered diseases caused from exposure to radioactive contamination, including non-Hodgkin`s lymphoma, thyroid cancer, throat cancer, various skin cancers and reproductive problems. Michael Thomas a VP-6 crew member present on the island at the time of the explosion explained that following the Bluegill Prime explosion that flight crew and ground support staff were trapped on the island. Studies later showed that 85% of the VP-6 crew members went on to develop illness and cancers in the subsequent years (Cleaning up Johnston Atoll,2005).

A check carried out by the US Public Health service in 1964 discovered enough contaminated fallout debris - which would have filled 400 barrels - had been dumped in Johnston atoll`s waters resulting in disastrous environmental consequences lasting for many years following (Mitchell J, 2020).

Newpaper Articles of Interest

Newspaper from Honolulu dated July 9th, 1962, following Starfish Prime Test.

An article from the same newspaper above reporting about the starfish prime detonation during the crowning of Miss Hawaii with the Governor William F Quinn stating that "the nuclear fireworks was a fitting flourish to the crowning of Miss Hawaii."

Sources

Mitchell, J. (2020). Poisoning the Pacific. Rowman & Littlefield.

FWS.gov. (n.d.). Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. [online] Available at: https://fws.gov/refuge/johnston-atoll/about-us [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

web.archive.org. (2015). Wayback Machine. [online] Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20200229185631/https:/www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/1-Fact_Sheets/20_HARDTACK_I.pdf [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Operation Hardtack 11958 DNA 6038F United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests Nuclear Test Personnel Review Prepared by the Defense Nuclear Agency as Executive Agency for the Department of Defense. (n.d.). Available at: https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/2-Hist_Rpt_Atm/1958_DNA_6038F.pdf [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

web.archive.org. (2002). Wayback Machine. [online] Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20090320075426/http:/www.dtra.mil/newsservices/publications/pub_includes/docs/DefensesNuclearAgency.pdf [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Boyne, W. (2012). In 1962, Operation Dominic regularly lit up the sky above the Pacific Ocean with nuclear yields up to 700 times the size that destroyed Hiroshima. [online] Available at: https://www.airandspaceforces.com/PDF/MagazineArchive/Documents/2012/December%202012/1212bang.pdf. [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Bud`s Memories of Operation Hardtack Nuclear Tests Johnston Island 1958: High Altitude & High Yield Nuclear Shots Teak and Orange (2021), [online] Available at: https://www.usni.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/Operations%20Hardtack%20and%20Orange%29%20FINAL.pdf [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

www.sonicbomb.com. (2023) :SonicBomb:. - Fishbowl 1962. [online] Available at: https://www.sonicbomb.com/fishbowl.html [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

nautilus.org. (2005). Cleaning up Johnston Atoll | Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability. [online] Available at: https://nautilus.org/apsnet/cleaning-up-johnston-atoll/. [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Images

Contaminated Johnston Island Bluegill Prime Failure Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#/media/File:Contaminated_Johnston_Island_Launch_Emplacement_1,_Bluegill_Prime,_Thor_failure,_July_25,_1962..jpg [Accessed 24 Oct.2023]

www.usgs.gov. (n.d.). Map of Palmyra Atoll in the Pacific | U.S. Geological Survey. [online] Available at: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/map-palmyra-atoll-pacific. [Accessed 24 Oct.2023]

Wikipedia. (2023). Johnston Atoll. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#/media/File:Johnston_Atoll_satellite_map.jpg [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

‌Wikipedia. (2023). Johnston Atoll. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#/media/File:Growth_of_Johnston_Island.svg [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

‌Operation Hardtack I 1958 DNA 6038F United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests Nuclear Test Personnel Review Prepared by the Defense Nuclear Agency as Executive Agency for the Department of Defense. (2002). Available at: https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/2-Hist_Rpt_Atm/1958_DNA_6038F.pdf [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Wikipedia. (2023). Hardtack Teak. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Teak#/media/File:Hardtack_I_Teak_002.jpg [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Orange Shot, www.ausairpower.net. (n.d.). Operation Hardtack and Fishbowl / High Altitude Test Imagery. [online] Available at: https://www.ausairpower.net/Hi-Alt-Nuke-Imagery.html [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Wikipedia. (2023). Operation Dominic. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dominic#/media/File:DominicBigHorn.gif [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Tsar Bomba, [online] Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CvwC7k1v_v/ [ Accessed 24 Oct.2023]

Wikipedia. (2023). Operation Fishbowl. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl#/media/File:Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

‌Newspaper, Lind, I. (2012). Star-Bulletin reporting on the 1962 atmospheric nuclear test. [online] Lind. Available at: https://www.ilind.net/2012/07/09/star-bulletin-reporting-on-the-1962-atmospheric-nuclear-test/ [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

Videos

Vault, N. (2009). Operation HARDTACK Military Effects Studies • Part 2 - High Altitude Studies (1958). YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygQgWKtNFhg [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

‌www.youtube.com. (2009). Operation Hardtack - Teak Shot. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDfZQ [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

‌www.youtube.com. (2009). Operation Hardtack - Orange Shot. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmTQVoAm1UY. [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

‌www.youtube.com. (2020). Operation Fishbowl - High Altitude Weapons Effects. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ezrhY4AUGhY [Accessed 24 Oct. 2023].

www.youtube.com. (2020). Johnston Atoll, Island of the Cold War. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzvuJtqUGiY [Accessed 31 Oct. 2023].

‌

‌

‌

‌

‌

‌