Biography of an Ancient Greek Vase

CLASS239-01 Final - Vase #14

Introduction

This vase is a red-figure kylix attributed to the Athenian painter Epiktetos. Although it was originally produced in the potter's quarter of Athens, it was found in Vulci, a city in Etruria, or modern-day Italy. The vase was sold into private ownership before being sold, and is currently held in the British Museum. Information on this vase can also be found on the Beazley Archive, a searchable online database containing information on thousands of Greek vases.

Greek vases, although breakable, are much more resistant to degradation than other artifacts, like cloth or painted murals. Since pottery also cannot be easily melted down and remolded like precious metals, they remain some of the most enduring clues we have regarding life in Ancient Greece. A close study of Greek vases can provide insights into Greek culture, myth, daily life, symposium traditions, trade patterns, and the development of various paint styles over time. In the case of this vase, one is able to consider the importance of symposium traditions, the myth of Theseus, the use of inscription on vases, cultural values, trade with Etruria, and the development of the red figure style.


Origins

According to the British Museum, this vase was produced in Athens. Athens was a large producer of Greek pottery, to the point that "to most Greeks or Greek customers, figure-decorated pottery in the Greek style simply came to mean Athenian red figure" (Boardman, 2001, 78). Scholars were able to discern this vase's production location through both the style of the imagery on the vase and the inclusion of the painter, Epiktetos', signature. Connoisseurship, or use of "expertise in attributing works to individual artists or schools" (Boardman, 2001, 128), would have helped to confirm the attribution of this vase. In order to appropriately attribute this vase to Epiktetos, a scholar would have conducted a very detailed study of different painters' renditions of certain body parts (things like the ears, feet/hands, and general style of the face), and compared these anatomical details on the vase to other vases that were confirmed to belong to Epiktetos (paraphrase from Boardman, 2001, 130-131) . Knowledge of the location of Epiktetos' workshop could have also allowed the British Museum to deduce the origins of this pot. However, the pot was found in Vulci, a city in Etruria (parts of modern-day Italy), and was likely sent there through trade networks. This vase's identity as a traded object helps us to draw conclusions about the potential different relationships and points of connection between the Greeks and the Etruscans.

A map showing both the kylix's find spot (Vulci) and its production site (Athens).


Technique and Date

Prior to this style, there had been Attic (Athenian) black figure vases, with red exposed clay backgrounds and figures painted on with slip. This style was characterized by its "growing interest in myth scenes" (Boardman, 2001, 52), and "vases devoted wholly to figure scenes" (Boardman, 2001, 53). During the transition from black figure to red figure, there was a brief experiment in bilingual vases, which are vases depicting both red figure and black figure versions of the same scene. Shortly after 500 BC, the Greeks would enter what scholars call the Classical period. In this time period, painters would begin to "suggest depth by using different levels" (Moignard, 2006, 28) and figures often have a "parallelism with changes in sculptural style" (Moignard, 2006, 29).

The vase is painted in the early red figure style, meaning that the painters filled in the background with a clay slurry (called slip) which turns black when fired. This leaves the figures (people, animals, other imagery) on the vase in the reddish-orange color of the exposed clay. On this vase, the painter includes a bit of added red (included details in a red paint or glaze) to emphasize laurel wreaths on the figure's heads, as well as the inscriptions (added words) on the vase. This style started between 530 and 520 BC. The British Museum estimates that this vase was produced in 510 BC, meaning that this vase is from near the beginning of the red figure style, around the end of the Archaic period. During this time, many painters were interested in experimenting with "ways of suggesting three-dimensionality via foreshortening," "anatomical detail," and ways to "overlap figures without loss of clarity" (Moignard, 2006, 28).

These two scenes on a bilingual vase (one containing both red figure and black figure designs) show the difference between the two styles well. The top is black figure, with the background in red and the design in black slip. The bottom is red figure, with the background and fine details in black slip and the figures left in exposed red clay.


Making the Vase

The workshop that produced this vase was likely made in the Kerameikos (potter’s quarter) on the outskirts of Athens. This placement kept smoke and other air pollutants from the kilns away from the center of town (Class Lecture, 3/6). The Kerameikos was located closer to clay beds where the potters sourced materials for their pottery, and was close to the graveyard (many Greek vases had specific uses in funerary rites, so those passing between town and the cemetery could stop and purchase a vase for such rituals) (Class Lecture, 3/6). Being near Athens also meant that the workshops had access to the large market and shipping opportunities the city provided.

We can assume that vase painters and potters held a fairly low social status. Many painters and potters were enslaved or otherwise non-citizens of Greece. Their craft was also not considered as important or valuable amongst the elite Greek citizenry, as evidenced by discrepancies in written accounts of Greek art. (Class Lecture, 3/4). The vase contains an inscription that attributes this vase to the painter Epiktetos, a member of the Pioneer Group. It’s very plausible that Epiktetos was painting in a workshop with other painters around, some of them potentially also members of the Pioneer Group. If he worked in a workshop that had many different painters and they were producing vases on a large-scale, it’s possible that someone else did the palmettes or other filler imagery, or did a rough outline for him in charcoal. Some people, like Euphronios (another member of the Pioneer Group), signed vases as both potter and painter, suggesting that these two jobs were performed by different people during this time period (Class Lecture, 3/4). Given that Epiktetos only signed this vase as the painter, he likely would not have been responsible for the shaping and firing of his vase. This task would have been performed by someone with more seniority in the workshop (Class Lecture, 3/4).

In order to make this kylix, the potter first had to source clay. Then, because this kylix is a piece of decorated fineware, the clay had to be purified through levigation multiple times. Then the potter kneaded the clay, removing air bubbles and decreasing the chances that the pot would explode in the kiln. Then the potter threw the bowl shape on a potter’s wheel, which would have been spun by another person. The kylix was then left to dry. The handles and the foot were attached after the cup had dried, since it is much easier to throw the bowl separately on a wheel than to mold a shape with symmetrical handles. Then, the painter would have done a preliminary sketch before adding slip to create the black spaces on the pot, as well as added red and inscriptions. Then the kiln would be prepared and filled with many different vases and kiln supports. The pots would undergo a three stage firing process with varying heat and oxygen access, activating the slip and turning it black (Class Lecture, 3/6). Since this vase is a red-figure vase, the majority of the vase’s surface was painted with slip. The only portions that weren’t painted with slip are the red figures, palmettes, the very rim of the kylix’s lip, and the red stripes on the handles and foot. The painter likely outlined the figures on the vase in charcoal before painting the background around them and adding details to the imagery on the vase. Using added red, the painter would have added small details to the figures and inscriptions on top of the slip (Class Lecture, 3/8).

Here is a picture of a kiln like the ones that Greek potters would have used to fire pots in the Kerameikos.

Epiktetos has a very particular way of painting a hairline, where the hair almost appears to drip down onto the forehead. The hair on the top of the figure’s heads also tends to have bumps similar to cartoon drawings of clouds. There are similarities in the way Epiktetos paints eye shapes. He occasionally shows scenes that appear to be in the midst of action (for example, there are lots of scenes depicting people preparing to strike others with weapons), rather than the quiet moments before or after actions. He also was interested in satyrs, revelry, and daily life scenes. Epiktetos’ style generally has many figures in a variety of positions, showing an interest in contortion. Of the discovered and attributed Epiktetos vases, he tended to paint a lot of kylikes and other cups.


Findspot

It seems very likely that this vase was found in a tomb. The vast majority of vases found in Etruria come from tombs, as they have remained fairly undisturbed for centuries (Class Lecture, 3/13). The vase is in very good condition, with only a few minor cracks along the tondo that are not even severe enough to distort the imagery on the tondo. This would suggest that this vase sat relatively undisturbed for most of its life–a good sign that this vase came from a tomb. It is possible that this vase was used in feasting traditions (similar to a Greek symposium, except the event was not limited to men) (Class Lecture, 3/13). The vase also could have been used specifically in burial feasting traditions or acted as a place to leave offerings for the dead in the tomb. The Etruscans invested heavily in their tombs and funerary rites, as family structures, particularly amongst elites, were very important. (Class Lecture, 3/13)

This is an Etruscan tomb in Cerveteri. Our vase, found in Vulci, would likely have been found in a tomb similar to this one.


Trade and Exchange

This vase would have had to have traveled to Vulci on a ship across the Mediterranean, likely by an Ionian or Euboean trader. Etruria had one of the largest overseas markets for Greek vases, and this vase would have likely passed through this market before being purchased by an Etruscan trader (and taken to a more local Vulci market) or direct owner (Class Lecture 3/11). Given that this vase depicts a local Athenian hero, Theseus, (Class Lecture 2/21) it is highly unlikely that the vase was created with an Etruscan audience in mind.

However, it is also difficult to know whether or not this vase was sold secondhand. It is not like Panathenaic vases, which were awarded to Athenian athletes and would certainly have been part of a secondhand Etruscan market (Class Lecture 3/11). However, it is still possible that this vase was used briefly as a kylix in a Greek symposium before being sold off again, so it's difficult to gauge whether or not this vase was actually a part of a secondhand market or not.

The inscriptions on the vase are in Greek, potentially making it difficult for the Etruscans to read the vase. The depictions of Theseus slaying the minotaur may not have been as immediately recognizable to an Etruscan audience as it was to a Greek audience. However, the Etruscans could still have identified the minotaur as a mythological or monstrous creature, and Theseus as a human preparing to kill it. The Etruscans could have interpreted this vase's imagery as a depiction of a mythological hunt scene, or correlated the images to an Etruscan myth about a figure fighting a monster. It also could have been interpreted as a strange funeral games scene (Class Lecture 3/13).


Shape of the vase

The vase is a kylix. These vases were primarily used as cups; they have a flat bowl shape with a long foot (base) and two handles near the lip of the vase. For wealthy Greek men, kylikes were "the vessel of choice for symposia of all kinds" (Moignard, 2006, 63). Symposia were essentially drinking parties held exclusively for elite Greek men. The shape of the cup and the placement of the handles allow for the user to easily drink from the vase, and the tondo (the flat inner portion of the cup) occasionally held imagery intended to entertain, shock, or prompt reflection in the user as they emptied their cup. Given that this vase was found in Vulci, it is possible that the kylix was used for more inclusive Etruscan feast ceremonies or for pouring out libations.

Another kylix from the British Museum. Note the handle and foot placement. This kylix has a diameter of about 18 centimeters (7.4 inches).


Imagery

This vase depicts three different scenes. On the tondo of the kylix, there is a robed man reclining on a chair. His head is tilted back and his mouth is open. He is wreathed and holds a lyre in his lap. There are inscriptions around him in red. The museum identifies him as a reclined singer/musician. For the musician, the presence of an instrument in his lap and his tilted back, open mouth would be good iconographic indications of his profession. The lack of other distinguishing characteristics (special clothing, the presence of gods or goddesses, etc.) help the museum identify this as a generic scene (Class Lecture 4/8).

The kylix's tondo. As symposium goers continued to drink, the musician would slowly be revealed.

On one half of the kylix’s exterior, five beardless men are attending a party. The one on the farthest right is partially draped with a cloth, but the rest are naked. All wear wreaths in their hair. Four of the men are holding or interacting with different vases. Another man plays a flute. Two of the men stand with their limbs in unusual positions, and are likely dancing. There is also an inscription here. The museum identifies this scene as a revelry scene with five youths. For the revelry scene, the presence of symposium vases (kylikes, kraters, etc) help to identify that the figures are drinking, as well as their contorted positions. Their lack of beards suggests that they are youths (Class Lecture 4/8).

One part of the kylix's exterior, showing the revelry of youths (likely at their own symposium).

The other half of the vase’s exterior has four figures. On the farthest sides are two women in robes, each with an arm extended towards the two central figures. In the middle of the scene is a naked figure with a man’s body and a bull's head. This figure holds a large rock over his head. Next to him is another man, wreathed and wearing a short robe with another spotted fabric tied over top. He carries a sword and wears a sword sheath. He is stepping towards the bull-man figure, gesturing at him with one hand and appears ready to strike with his sword. The museum identifies this as the myth of Theseus slaying the minotaur. In the scene with Theseus, the minotaur can be identified because it is half man, half bull. Since Theseus slays the minotaur, the presence of a figure next to the minotaur holding a sword (and ready to swing) identifies that figure as Theseus. Something to note is that Theseus, despite being a hero, is not depicted in heroic nudity in this scene.

The other half of the kylix's exterior. This scene depicts Theseus killing the minotaur, with two women standing on either side of the scene.

In a Greek context, the most likely audience for this vase would have been symposium goers, as the kylix is a symposium shape, intended for watered-down wine to be drank out of (Class Lecture 2/26). In a symposium scene, it is possible that this vase could be used to talk about Athenian values and the virtues of an Athenian man (Class Lecture 4/8). Theseus is a local Athenian hero, so he could stand in as a symbol for masculine virtues of sacrifice and seeking glory. The women on the sides may also be intended to spark conversations about the role of women in war or other violent conflicts—namely, the idea that they should remain on the sidelines (Class Lecture 4/10). They may conjure up discussions of Ariadne and how she sent Theseus off to the labyrinth, but did not follow herself, a task associated with elite women (Class Lecture 4/10). This conversation may also connect with the youths on the other side of the vase, since children were sent into the labyrinth to be fed to the minotaur before it was killed. These youths are now able to party and enjoy their own symposium because of Theseus’ success, perhaps even appreciating the music that the singer on the tondo is playing. They also are wearing wreaths, so it’s possible that the painter was drawing comparisons between all of the wreathed figures and their potential to display proper masculinity at different stages of life (Class Lecture, 4/10).

However, given that this vase was found in Etruria, the vase also likely had an audience that was not Greek symposium-goers. This vase was likely found in a tomb, like the majority of Greek vases with Etruscan proveniences are. In Etruria, it is possible that the revelry scene and the musician could reflect feasting traditions or a funeral banquet, with the Etruscans leaving their deceased loved ones "crockery from which to feast in decent style" (Spivey 1991, 148). Theseus’ fight with the minotaur may have been interpreted by the Etruscans as a kind of mythical hunt or as a mythologized funerary game (Class Lecture, 3/13), as the minotaur figure would still read as a mythological, potentially monstrous, figure.


Afterlife

The British Museum acquired this vase in 1836 CE through a Danish archaeologist by the name of Peter Oluf Brondsted. The previous owner, Edme Antoine Durand, died in 1835. Durand was a French "diplomat and collector" (British Museum) who acquired the vase before his own death. Given that this vase was certainly excavated before the late nineteenth century, it was found prior to the concept of looting (illegal excavation) or proper archaeological practice (Class Lecture, 4/22). It's very possible that Durand was familiar with an Italian noble who simply found the vase on their lands and sold it to Durand as a symbol of existing friendship or diplomacy (Class Lecture 4/22).

If Durand did not directly acquire this vase from a friend, then the vase was likely purchased through the art market. The vase would have been found in an Etruscan tomb, valued for its imagery, and cleaned and prepared for sale. From here, either Durand or another collector encountered it at an art auction or through an art dealer. They would have then purchased the vase for a private collection. The vase could have possibly gone through a few owners before eventually making its way into Durand's private collection. After Durand's death, the inheritors of his estate chose to sell his collection through Brondsted. The archaeologist worked with the British Museum to sell Durand's collection and transport it from France to London, where the vase remains to this day (Class Lecture 4/22).


Beazley Archive

The Beazley Archive is named for John Beazley, a highly influential scholar in the study of Greek vases. He was responsible for taking connoisseurship techniques from those studying Renaissance art and applying them to the study of Greek vases (paraphrase from Boardman, 2001, 129). The Beazley Archive is an online archive that contains searchable images and information for the vast majority of discovered Greek vases. Within the archive, there are 5,819 kylikes (although the Beazley Archive simply uses the term 'cups'). 3,328 of these kylikes are in the red-figure style, and the archive lists 63 kylikes that scholars have attributed to Epiktetos. This suggests that kylikes were a shape that Epiktetos worked in often. There are even more cup fragments listed on the Beazley Archive, and it is possible that some of these come from kylikes that have been broken since their creation thousands of years ago.

I was also curious as to whether or not red-figure kylikes were popular at the time that this kylix was made. In order to find out, I searched for the two time periods which overlapped with the approximate date this vase was produced, and filtered through these two timeframes for both red-figure vases and kylikes. The archive shows that there are 1,601 red-figure cups produced between 550 and 475 BC (our vase was produced around 510 BC). This suggests that red-figure kylikes were fairly popular when the vase was produced.

John Beazley studying a Greek vase, the Beazley Archive's namesake.


Reflection and Conclusion

Although Greek vases cannot be taken as a sole source of information on the ancient world, they offer valuable insights into the lived realities of Greek people. A close study, and a willingness to look beyond simply the imagery on vases, can reveal aspects of life and society in the Greek world that written records and other artifacts struggle to depict. Vases contain histories of class stratification, gender roles, trade relations, mythology, and cultural traditions. Greek vases, and their reception today, also serve to tell us something about ourselves and our own perception of the Greek world.

In the case of this vase specifically, I find it fascinating to consider the different ways that this vase could have been interpreted by Greek and Etruscan audiences, and how the context of the vase can change the meaning it holds for its viewer. This vase tends to fit in well to the established history of Greek vases, and was created near a really important turning point for vase style. I think it was also really interesting to consider this vase within the broader context of vase evolution. I feel as though I have grown a lot in my understanding of this vase, and the skills I have developed in class allowed me to create my own informed interpretation of this vase's imagery.

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